The Road to Independence in Kenya and Neocolonialism

Introduction

The Republic of Kenya is an East African country with a population of at least 47.6 million people according to the 2019 census. The country’s largest city and capital city is Nairobi while its port city, Mombasa, is its second largest and oldest city. Mombasa once acted as the capital city for the British East Africa Protectorate which was composed of modern day southwestern Somalia and Kenya from 1889 to 1907. Other important cities in the country such as Nakuru and Kisumu serve as transit cities to other countries in the region including Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. Kenya has five neighbors namely Somalia, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. Luckily, all its neighbors are friendly meaning that the country has no serious land territorial disputes with them. In addition, the fact that Kenya is a coastal country means that it acts as a gateway to international trade for its landlocked neighbors such as Uganda, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi and some parts of Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Like most of Africa, the territory of modern day Kenya fell under colonialism after the Berlin conference in 1885 when the entire continent of Africa was divided by the European colonial powers. After the Berlin conference, the East Africa Protectorate was established by the British Empire in 1895 consisting of the territory of Kenya, Uganda and some parts of Southern Somalia. Kenya remained as a part of the East African protectorate until 1920 when the entity known as the Kenya Colony was formally established. The country is named after the tallest mountain in Kenya, Mount Kenya which was known as ‘Kirima Kirinyaga’ or ‘the mountain with brightness’ by the Kikuyu. The first recorded use of the name Kenya was by Johann Ludwig Krapf who was a German explorer in the 19^th century. He was travelling with a Kamban caravan owned by Chief Kivoi, a long-distance Kamba trader when he asked the chief what the name of the tall mountain was. Kivoi told him that it was called Ki-Nyaa of Kiima-Kinyaa which is the Kamba pronunciation of Kirinyaga. Kenya gained its independence in 1963 from the British Empire during the decolonization movement in the 1960s when Jomo Kenyatta became the first Prime Minister and Queen Elizabeth II its first head of state. In 1964, the country officially became a republic with Jomo Kenyatta acting as its first president.

The Pre-Colonial Era

The Neolithic Era

It is believed that the first settlers in modern-day Kenya were hunter and gatherer groups similar to the the Khoisan. In the following years/centuries, they were gradually replaced by agropastoralists groups such as the Cushites from the Horn of Africa region. The region proved to be attractive to the Cushitic speakers because of its favorable weather and fertile soils which were excellent for herding as well as agriculture. By approximately 500 BC, Nilotic speakers began their migration from modern-day South Sudan and Sudan into the Kenyan territory. These Nilotes include the Maasai, Samburu, Turkana, Kalenjin and the Luo. Later on by the first millenium AD, Bantu farmers had began moving into the region. Historians believe that the Bantus originally came from West Africa along the Benue River in modern day Western Cameroon and Eastern Nigeria. The Bantu migration proved to be consequential in African history because the Bantu farmers came with new developments in iron working and agriculture into the new territories. The Bantu groups in modern Kenya include the Mijikenda, Kikuyu, Meru, Aembu, Taita, Kisii, Luhya, Wapokomo and the Ambeere. Although the Bantu migration was frequently accompanied by violence, most of the hunter-gatherer groups  such as the Twa were assimilated into the agricultural communities meaning that those who integrated did not suffer from displacement from their lands.

The Swahili Civilization

The Kenyan/ East African Cost had been inhabited by Bantu farmers, fishermen, hunters and iron workers who played important roles in fishing, metal production, agriculture as well as trade with foreign nations. These people eventually formed  region’s earliest city-states which became collectively known as Azania. The intermarriage between communities in the coast led to the growth of the population and the formation of integrated communities which flourished in trade and other economic activities. By the 1^st century in the common era, city-states such as Zanzibar, Malindi and Mombasa started to trade with the Arabs leading to the growth and development of the Swahili language and culture. Moreover, Islam was introduced and spread quickly along the East African coast leading to an increase in Arabic influence on the Swahili people. The Swahili city-states emerged between 1000AD and 1500AD as the populations and settlements began to grow. According to historians, the oldest Swahili texts which were written in Arabic-Swahili alphabet can be traced back to this era.

Portuguese and Omani Arab Rule

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive and explore the present-day Kenyan coast at the end of the 15^th century. Vasco Da Gama’s voyage visited Mombasa in 1498 during his journey to India. Initially, the Portuguese did not intend to settle in the Kenyan coast as they only wanted to build naval bases which would facilitate Portugal’s control of the Indian Ocean’s vital sea routes and trade. The Portuguese rule of the Kenyan coast started after 1505 when a force led by Dom Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa in modern-day Tanzania. The Portuguese’ main aim was to control and secure the sea routes connecting Asia and Europe. Their control of these routes meant that they could demand high tariffs on goods transported along the area. In 1593, they built Fort Jesus to solidify their unchallenged rule in the region.

The Omani forces defeated the Portuguese, captured Fort Jesus in 1698 and went on to establish their rule over the Swahili coast. They expanded commercial activities and the slave trade to get workers for their plantations in Zanzibar and Oman. The Omani Sultan Seyyid Said who ruled from 1807 to 1856 moved his capital city to Zanzibar in 1840 mainly because of its strategic location at the middle of the Omani Empire (between the East African coast and Oman). During their rule the Omanis managed to establish long-distance trade routes into the African interior where goods such as agricultural products, gold, iron and ivory were traded.

The 19^th Century

The Omanis continued to consolidate their rule/colonization of the East African coast during the nineteenth century. Although they were only able to rule the coastal areas, the creation of plantations in Oman and Zanzibar led to an increase in the slave trade which was often resisted by inland groups such as the Maasai and the Kikuyu. In addition, the Maasai also began to migrate in to the southern and central Rift Valley plains of Kenya from the Lake Turkana area leading to a period of increased warfare between the Nandi and groups such as the Taita.

The Arab domination of the East African coast continued until the British decided to gradually establish their rule to consolidate their hegemony over India. The fact that the British had a superior navy and weaponry meant that the Omanis had no interest in fighting them even when they abolished the lucrative slave trade. The British quickly took over the key sea ports in Kenya although the Omani rule of Zanzibar and Pemba continued until they were eventually overthrown during the 1964 revolution.

The British Colonial Era (1895 to 1963).

The British Empire expanded its territorial control to the Lake Naivasha region and established the East African Protectorate. In 1902, the imperial government expanded to modern day Uganda as part of the enlargement of the protectorate. The take over by the British often met strong resistance from leaders such as Waiyaki wa Hinga, a Dagoretti chief who had signed a treaty with the (BEAC) under Frederick Lugard. After consistent harassment under Lugard, Waiyaki led a brief resistance campaign and burnt Lugard’s fort in 1890. Two years later he wad kidnapped and murdered by the British authorities.

One of the key factors which led to the expansion of the protectorate and the development of Kenya’s interior regions was the construction of the Mombasa-Kisumu Railway from 1895 to 1901. The construction of the railway was fiercely resisted by some local tribes such as the Nandi under their famous leader Orkoiyot Koitalel Arap Samoei. Eventually, it was completed as the British were able to use local and imported Indian labor. Some of the Indian laborers stayed in Kenya and established communities in the country with some becoming prominent traders in the following decades. The British also encouraged European settlements in the fertile highland in Kenya leading to strong resentment from affected ethnic groups such as the Nandi, Kalenjin and Kikuyu communities.

The Kenya Colony

During the first world war, approximately 400,000 African men were mobilized to protect the British empire under The Carrier Corps leading to political awakening and mobilization. In 1920, the East African Protectorate was declared to be a crown Colony and was named after its highest mountain, Kenya. The colonial government only allowed European representatives to the colony’s legislative council until 1944 when the first African was allowed to join. The emergence of colonial rule led to the emergence of anti-colonial movements such as Mumboism led by Onyango Dude of Kavirondo which aimed at driving out the colonialists and rejecting their religion. Mumboism grew among the Kisii and the Luo ethnic groups but was harshly repressed through the deportation as well as imprisonment of its followers in the 1920s and 30s. It was eventually outlawed in 1954 after the Mau Mau uprising.

There were several factors which led to the growing resistance to colonial rule such as the opposition to white settlements, the kipande system and increased taxation of the Africans through programs such as the hut tax. Before World War I, there had been limited political mobilization but after the war, issues such as new settlements, reduced wages and new taxes led to the creation of new political movements. Harry Thuku formed the Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) in 1921. The YKA was banned but led to the growth of Kikuyu nationalism and later the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) under the same leader was formed. The KCA aimed at achieving universal suffrage for all Africans. After wards, Harry Thuku renamed his movement as the East African Association because he wished to welcome all ethnic groups to lead a nationalist movement in the country. Thuku was later imprisoned by the colonial authorities until 1930s under sedition charges.

World War II

World War II (1939-1945) proved to be a consequential political event in Kenya’s history. The colony acted as a key military base for the British Empire in its fight against Italy in neighboring Ethiopia and Somaliland as well as other parts of the world such as Burma (now known as Mynamar). The war provided an opportunity for approximately 100,000 young men to serve as ‘askaris’ in the King’s African Rifles (KAR) Like the first word war, the second world war led a rise in African nationalism. The war also led to an emergence of a new class of westernized Africans who became influential after its. They rose to became a middle class which challenged the relationship between the Africans and the European settler government.

Post-War Movements

In1944, Harry Thuku established the multi-ethnic Kenya African Study Union (KASU) which went on to become the Kenya African Union (KAU) in 1946 to demand access to white-owned land. Eliud Mathu became the first African to be nominated into the legislative council under KAU. Although KAU’s members were mostly Kikuyus, it had a multiethnic leadership and in 1947, Johnstone Kenyatta became its leader to lead a more aggressive campaign for African rights. In his efforts to form a nationalist movement, Kenyatta inspired Oginga Odinga of the Luo Union to join KAU in 1952 to fight for African independence. As a result of the growing African mobilization, the colonial authorities increased the membership of the legislative council and gave it increased powers. The African membership of the council was then increased to 6.

The Mau-Mau Rebellion

The colonial governor, Sir Evelyn Berlin declared a state of emergency in Kenya in 1952 lasting up to 1959 during the Mau Mau Uprising. The Mau Mau, also known as the Kenya Land and Freedom Army, was an armed African movement mostly made up of Kikuyu World War II veterans. Its goal was to fight against European settlement and colonialism. As such, the Imperial regime repressed it harshly over  leading to the death of 11,000 African fighters, 2,000 Kenyan loyalist soldiers and over 100 British solders. In addition, the colonial government also used an intense propaganda campaign to dissuade the international community and other Kenyan communities from joining the movement. They widely publicized real and fake acts of cruelty blamed on the Mau Mau. Nonetheless, the movement was supported by notable individuals such as Pio Gama Pinto, a Goan Kenyan who provided arms to the fighters until he was arrested and imprisoned from 1954 to 1959. Argwings Kodhek also supported the fighters by acting as the lawyer who managed to defend the people accused of Mau Mau crimes successfully.

The Mau Mau Rebellion led to a growing awareness of the brutality of the colonial regime. This was not only because of the brutality of the counter insurgency operations but also due to the fact that large numbers of people from the Kikuyu ethnic group were rounded up and placed into concentration camps where they were tortured and treated inhumanely. Although the movement was ultimately defeated in 1956 after the capture of its leader Dedan Kimathi, the colonial regime was forced to implement reforms such as allowing Africans to grow coffee and other crops for commercial purposes. In addition, the East African Salaries Commission also recommended the ‘equal pay for equal work’ policy which aimed at getting rid of past policies which favored the Europeans.

Post Mau Mau Politics and Hope for Independence

After the defeat of the Mau Mau rebellion, the colonial authorities allowed the election of 6 African members to the governing body, the Legislative Council. Mboya was elected to the council in 1957 under his new Nairobi People’s Convention Party (NPCP). Oginga Odinga was also elected and went on to become the leader of the elected African members. The 1958 constitution increased the number of elected African members but this would not stop the Africans from demanding universal suffrage.

In 1960, the Kenya African National Union (KANU) was formed after the merger of the the NPCP with the Kenya Independence Movement and the Kenya African Union. The new KANU party had strong leaders in Tom Mboya and James Gichuru who allowed it to play a major role in the colony’s political life. In 1964, the Kenya African Democratic Union broke away from KANU under the leadership of Masinde Muliro and Ronald Ngala. KANU and KADU became major parties after winning 19 and 11 seats respectively in the February 1961 elections. Although the parties aimed at unifying the country, the Somali ethnic group in the colony’s northern frontier districts petitioned the British government not to be a part of Kenya. As a result, the colonial regime conducted Kenya’s first referendum to allow the Somalis to decide if they wanted to join Somalia. Although the referendum proved that 86% of Somalis wanted to join Somalia, the colonial government ignored the results and the northern frontier districts remained in Kenya.

Independence

KANU and KADU formed a coalition government in 1962 under the leadership of Jomo Kenyatta and Ronald Ngala. Subsequent political reforms created a bicameral parliament made up of a 41-member Senate and 117 member Parliament and the country was divided into 7 semi-autonomous regions which had their own regional assemblies. The reserved seats for European and Asian settlers were also abandoned. While KANU won majorities in the May 1963 elections in the House of Representatives in the Nyanza, Central and Eastern regions, KADU won both majorities in the Western, Rift Valley and Coastal regions. As a result, Kenya achieved self-government with Kenyatta as its first Prime Minister in the same year. In 1964, the government under KANU implemented constitutional changes which centralized power in the central government in spite of fierce opposition from KADU.

On 12^th December 1964, Kenya became a republic with Kenyatta as its first president and head of state. Afterwards, the British bought out the European settlers with many deciding to leave instead of becoming a part of the independent republic. In addition, the country was forced to fight the Shifta War against Somali nationalists who wanted to join Somalia until a ceasefire was declared under the Arusha Memorandum in 1967. In 1969, Kenya and Ethiopia signed a defence pact to fight Somali expansionism leading to an end of all violence in the northern region.

Post Independence Politics, Globalization and Neocolonialism

The Kenyatta’s Era

Although Kenya gained it independence in 1963 and became a republic in 1964, the country continued to be under significant foreign influence, most notably western (American and British) influence. For example, the Kenyatta government (1963-1978) greatly relied on British and American help for military, political and financial support as well as legitimacy. The reliance on British and American support became increasingly important as Jomo Kenyatta pursued repressive political measures against his political rivals and perceived enemies. Although KADU had agreed to dissove voluntarily in 1964, the Kenya People’s Union broke way from KANU under the leadership of Oginga Odinga, advocating for socialism instead of the crony capitalism which had become rampant under Kenyatta. As a result, in 1966, the Kenyatta regime passed the a security act which allowed preventive detention. The new law was used against leaders of the KPU such as Peter Oloko, Oluande Koduol and Ochola Mak’Anyengo. After the assissanstion of Tom Mboya in 1969, riots erupted in the Luo community leading to the banning of the KPU. During this period, the Western governments continued to support Kenyatta out of fear that the country would fall under socialism and the Soviet bloc if Oginga Odinga or his bloc rose to power. In fact, Kenya was so pro-western that it did not help the resistance movements such as the ANC in South Africa fight apartheid.

The Moi Era

After the death of Jomo Kenyatta in office, Daniel Toroitich Arap Moi became the president of Kenya in 1978 under KANU. Although he came from the Kalenjin tribe which was not particularly prominent in Kenyan politics, he was able to consolidate his power and win elections thus giving earning the legitimacy to rule. He was also able to survive a coup in 1982 proving that he was in charge of the country. Although Kenya joined the non-aligned movement during this era, the country continued to adopt a pro-western political stance. In addition, it continued to be dependent on Britain and the United States for most of its military weapons which ensured that the West continued to be very influential in the country. Most of the foreign-exchange was also earned through trade with Western countries and tourism from the West.

During the fall of the Soviet Union, the United States and other western countries became less fearful of the rise of communist regimes in Africa. As a result, they were able to support local opposition in groups in pushing for political reform and multiparty politics. For instance, some Western countries such as the United States started putting pressure on the government by reducing foreign aid and loans. The local and foreign pressure eventually led to democratic reforms in 1991 when parliament repealed the constitutional requirement for Kenya to be a one-party state. During the following two elections in 1992 and 1997, Moi was able to win and continue being president because the political opposition was weak and divided.

The Kibaki Era

President Mwai Kibaki won the 2002 elections after forming the National Rainbow Coalition after defeating  KANU’s Uhuru Kenyatta. During his era, Kibaki implemented important economic reforms which led to the opening up of the economy to foreign capital and the world. As a result, the country witnessed an increase in foreign investment in sectors such as banking, communications, manufacturing and insurance. As expected, most of the foreign investments to the country came from Western capital as the growing economy and young population proved to be attractive to western investors. After he was declared the winner of the constested elections in 2007, President Kibaki formed a coalition government with his opponent Raila Odinga. The Coalition government went ahead to adopt  new constitution which created 47 counties and the Senate to implement devolution. Many experts and scholars argue that the the 2010 constitution is evidence of the high leves of American influence in Kenya because it mirrors the American governance system.

The Uhuru and Ruto Eras

Uhuru Kenyatta and his running mate, William Ruto, won the 2013 elections after the  confirmation of the elections by the Supreme Court. During the Uhuru era, Kenya started to implement the 2010 constitution after the election of senators and governors. However, the newly established counties were almost fully dependent on the national government for revenues including salaries. The country’s economy continued to grow at a rate of 5-6% per year. Moreover Uhuru’s regime continued to develop critical infrastructure such as roads and railways including the Mombasa-Suswa Railway. The Uhuru-Ruto era is also remembered for the dramatic increase in the nation’s debt leading to an ever increasing need to raise taxes and the prices of energy. Uhuru Kenyatta won the 2017 election after winning the rerun with over 90% of the vote after a boycott by the opposition. In 2022, William Ruto won the elections and is the current president of Kenya. One of the key changes in international relations during the Kibaki-Ruto era was the rise of China in the global economy. Today, China is also a very influential country in Kenya as it acts as one its of key creditors and largest trading/import partner.

Globalization, Foreign Influence and Neocolonialism

Kenya is a member of the international community meaning that it has also been a part of globalization as a part of the global economy. There is no doubt that the country is heavily dependent on the global economy and international trade for its very survival. Today, Kenya does not have an economic sector which is fully self-sufficient as it has to import the necessary technology to run the economy. For example, the country is almost entirely dependent on foreign countries for fertilizers and equipment in the agricultural sector. In addition, the communication sector is dependent on foreign companies such as Huawei for the necessary equipment in that sector. The same applies to the health and energy sectors. Although Kenya has invested heavily in the development of medical personnel such as doctors, surgeons and others, it is fully dependent on imports for medical equipment such as MRIs, xrays among others. Nonetheless, the country benefits from the having the ability to choose suppliers from different countries in the global economy. The choice has grown as Asian countries such as China, India, Vietnam and even Russia have continued to grow thus reducing the country’s dependence on western imports.

As a developing country with a young and vibrant population, Kenya requires a lot of capital and foreign as well as domestic investments to develop its infrastructure to facilitate the growth of the economy. Additionally, it needs to grow its revenues/tax base to facilitate such investments and run the government which is currently burdened by high wage bills and debt. Kenyan administrations have regularly been forced to rely on local and foreign debts to run the state and develop key infrastructure such as hospitals, roads, the railway network, schools, colleges and airports. Kenya also relies on foreign markets for the exports of goods to support the population.

Unsurprisingly, the country has important partners who occasionally provide loans including China, the European Union, Japan, India and others. The high rate of growth of the national debt led to a significant budgetary crisis during the COVID era when the country was forced to postpone the payment of some of its debts after negotiating with its creditors. In addition, the country also had to turn to the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for budget support. The IMF is famous for twisting the arms of struggling governments by forcing them to adopt politically unpopular measures such as austerity and raising taxes. This shows that countries such as Kenya continue to be vulnerable to a form on foreign/international rule which is commonly referred to as ‘neocolonialism’ by prominent scholars.

Regional and African Alliances

Kenya and other African countries have  local and regional measures/alliances which aim an increasing the trade between them to diversify markets and reduce reliance on potentially unpredictable/hostile foreign powers. A good example is the East African Community (EAC) comprised of Kenya, Tanzania, South Sudan, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The EAC has managed to increase the trade between its members significantly through the common market and removal of tariffs. In addition, the Common Market for East and Southern Africa also continues to be important in facilitating trade and economic growth among East/Southern African countries. The African Free Trade Area (AFTA) was created with similar ambitions but it faces key problems such as the deficit in infrastructure development which inhibits intra-African trade.

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