The History of Egypt up to the Roman Era

The Arab Republic of Egypt, simply referred to as Egypt or Misr in Arabic can be described as a transcontinental country because it occupies a part of Africa and southern Asia where the Sinai is located. It has several neighbors including Libya, Sudan, Israel, the Gaza enclave of Palestine. It is also bordered by the Red Sea through the Suez Canal, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Mediterranean Sea. The capital city of Egypt is Cairo whereas Alexandria it is 2^nd largest city and is one of its most important tourist and industrial hubs. Egypt has a large population of over 100 million people which makes it the third and 14^th most populous countries in Africa and the world respectively. It is well known that Egypt is one of the countries with the longest histories in the world, tracing its history along the Nile Delta  back to the 6^th-4th millennia before the common era (BCE). In the past, Egypt was one of the first adopters of Christianity before mass conversions into Islam from the 7^th century to date. Today, the country is ruled by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi who rose to power through a coup in 2014.

Predynastic Egypt (Pre-3150 BC)

According to historians, the climate in Egypt in its Predynastic and Early Dynastic times was less arid that it is in the modern era. Unlike today, most Egyptian regions had treed savannas that enabled the grazing of animals such as ungulates. The River Nile supported large populations of animals such as waterfowl as well as fauna and foliage covered most of the environment in the country. As such, hunting animals for food was very common. It is also argued that this was the period when a lot of animals became domesticated. By around 5500 BC, the tribes which lived in the Nile Delta had developed a variety of cultures and became very good at animal husbandry, agriculture as well as pottery. The largest culture among the early cultures was the Badarian culture that most likely began in the Western Desert and was famous for producing high quality ceramics, the use of copper as well as stone tools.   

The Naqada culture was also important as it led to various technological improvements. For example, the people of Egypt imported obsidian from Ethiopia that was used in the shaping of blades as well as other objects from flakes. Additionally, trade with the Levant and Mesopotamia was developed during this period. In a period of approximately one thousand years, the Naqada culture developed from its humble beginnings and became a powerful civilization where leaders established total control of the Nile valley’s resources and its people. Its power center was in Nekhen and late Abdydos. During the Naqada III culture, Egyptian leaders expanded their territory and established trade with Nubia to the south. The Naqada culture is famous from producing items such as painted pottery, combs, jewelry, ceramic glaze referred to as faience, cosmetic palettes as well as decorative stone vases. In its last phase, the culture developed a complete system of hieroglyphs that was used to write the ancient Egyptian language.

The Early Dynastic Period (3150-2686BC)

King Menes founded a unified kingdom in 3150 BC which led to the formation of a variety of dynasties which ruled the Egyptian people for the next 3 millennia. During this period, the culture in Egypt thrived in language, arts, religion as well as cutstoms. The initial 2 ruling dynasties of a united Egypt created the foundation for the Old Kingdom period which lasted from 2700-2200BC. During the Old Kingdom period, many pyramids were constructed including the Fourth Dynasty Giza pyramids and the Third Dynasty Djoser Pyramid

The Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC)

During the old kingdom, major developments in technology, architecture and art were made enabled by the rise in agricultural productivity and the growth of the population as a result of an advanced central administration. The Great Sphinx and the Giza pyramids are among the crowning achievements of this period. In addition, state officials oversaw irrigation projects aimed at improving agricultural production, collected taxes, recruited peasants as labor for construction projects and developed a justice systems whose work was to maintain order and peace. ]

The rise of central administration enabled the rise of a class of educated officials as well as scribes who were rewarded with estates by the king as compensation for their services. The kings also gave land grants to local temples and mortuary cults to make sure that they had the needed resources to worship the king after he died. According to historians, 500 years of such practices gradually eroded the economic viability of the kingdom because at some point, the economy no longer had the capacity to sustain a large centralized administration. This led to a decline in the power of the kings and a rise of normachs who were regional governors who started to challenge the authority of the king. A combination of this and severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC led to a period of strife and famine of nearly 140 years referred to as the First Intermediate Period.

The First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC)

After the collapse of the central government at the end of the old kingdom in Egypt, the authorities no longer had the capacity to sustain or stabilize the economy. Moreover, the king became unreliable for the regional governors during periods of crisis, famine and political conflicts. Nonetheless, local leaders used their independence from the king to develop prosperous cultures in the provinces. This is because the provinces established control over their resources and became richer. As a result of their independence from the king, local rulers started competing for political power and territorial control. By 2160 BC, the rulers in Herakleopolis had established control of northern Lower Egypt while the Intef family in Thebes controlled southern Upper Egypt. The rise of the Intefs enabled them to expand their territorial control northwards leading to a clash between the two dynasties. By 2055 BC, the Herakleopolitan rulers were defeated by Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II leading to the period of the united Middle Kingdom.

The Middle Kingdom (2134-1690 BC)

The Middle Kingdom's kings were able to restore the stability of the country leading to a prosperous period where monumental construction projects, literature and art experienced a great resurgence. Initially, the kingdom was ruled from Thebes by Mentuhotep II as well as his successors in the Eleventh Dynasty. The capital of the kingdom was shifted to Itjtawy around 1985 BC by Amenemhat I during the start of the Twelfth Dynasty. The kings in the 12^th Dynasty were able to oversee irrigation and land reclamation projects that greatly increased the production of food. In addition, the country’s military reconquered Nubia which was well endowed with resources such as gold mines and quarries. As a result, the population thrived in all areas including religion and the arts. Amenemhat III, who was the Middle Kingdom’s last great rulers allowed Canaanite Settlers from the Near East to move into the Nile Delta region to act as a labor force for his construction and mining projects. However, a combination of these ambitious projects and sever floods led to economic decline that ushered in the Second Intermediate period. The decline also enabled the Canaanite settlers to gain more control of the Delta region. Eventually, they took power in the country as the Hyksos.

The Second Intermediate Period (1674-1549 BC)

The decline of the power of the kings of the Middle Kingdom around 1785 BC enabled the Hyksos who had settled in the Delta to gain control of the country and make Avaris their capital. This forced the previous central regime to escape to Thebes. The Hyksos maintained the structures of government including the position of the king meaning that they had integrated elements of Egyptian culture in to their culture. During this period, new weapons of war such as the horse-drawn chariot and the composite bows were introduced. After escaping the the south, the Theban kings were trapped between the Kushites in the South, the Hyksos’ Nubian friends and the Caananite Hyksos who were ruling the north. The Theban kings were able to grow their strength to be able to challenge the Caananite Hyksos in a three decade conflict until 1555 BC. The kings Seqenenre Tao II  and Kamose managed to defeat the Nubians but the Hyksos were only defeated by Ahmose I who was the successor to Kamose. Ahmose I went ahead to establish the New Kingdom which had a strong military and was an expansionist power.

The New Kingdom

The pharaohs/kings of the New Kingdom were able to oversee a period of unprecedented prosperity by ensuring security in their borders and establishing strong diplomatic ties with neighboring empires/countries includng Assyria, Canaan and the Mitanni empire. The military under Turthmosis I and III were able to expand the country’s territory to the point where it became a very large empire. Hatshepsut reigned between the reigns of Tuthmosis I and III. She was able to restore the temples destroyed by the Hyksos. After the death of Tuthmosis III, Egypt had expanded to become an empire that extended from Niya in Syria to the Nile’s fourth cataract in Nubia.

The pharaohs in the New Kingdom began promoting the god Amun and built monuments to glorify their achievements. Around 1350 BC, the New Kingdom’s stability was threatened by the ascension of Amenhotep IV to the throne who implemented chaotic and radical reforms. He changed his name to Akhenaten, made the sund deity Aten the supreme diety and harshly suppressed the worship of other gods. He also made the newly established city of Akhetaten (now known as Amarna) his capital. After his death, the previous religious order was restored and the worship of Aten was abandoned

Ramesses II became the ruler around 1279 BC and went on to have a lot of children and build more temples as well as statues. He also fought the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh in present day Syria where the war was ended by a peace treaty. The wealth in Egypt made it a target for invaders specifically the Berbers in Egypt and the Sea Peoples. Although Egypt was initially able to repel the invdes, the country lost the territories in South Canaan to the Syrians. The country was also threatened by corruption, civil conflicts and robbery of the tombs

The Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period

            After Ramesses XI had died in 1078, Smendes rose to power in in Northern Egypt with his capital situated in Tanis. On the other hand, the south was ruled from Thebes by the High Priests of Amun. During this period, there were Libyan settlements that enabled Libyan princes to take control of the delta in 945 BC under Shoshenq I and etablidhed the Bubastite/Libyan dynasty which stayed in power for two centuries. Southern Egypt was controlled by Shoshenq. The rise of the Kushites in the south and a rival dynasty in the delta eventually led to the erosion of Libyan control.

The 25^th Dynasty was established around 727 BC when Piye, the Kushite king invaded the north and seized control of Thebes as well as the Delta. The pharaohs of the 25^th Dynasty went on to build and restore temples, pyramids and monuments in the Nile valley. By the end of the third intermediate period, the prestige of Egypt declined. As such, the country begain being conquered by the Assyrians between 671 and 667 BC. Eventually, the Assyrians were able to force the Kushites back to Nubia and occupy Memphis.

            The Late Period lasted from 653 to 332 BC. By 653 BC, the Assyrians had been ousted by the Saite king Psamtik I with the assistance of mercenaries from Greece.  During this period, Greek influence increased with Naucratis in the Nile Delta becoming the home of Greeks. The Saite kings made Sais their capital and were able to oversee a brief resurgence of the culture as well as economy. In 525 BC, the Persians began to  conquer Egypt until they were able to capture pharaoh Psamtik II during the Battle of Pelusium. The Egyptians tried to overthrow the Persians but failed. The Persians were able to incorporate Egypt into the Archaemenid Persian Empire together with Phoenecia and Cyprus. The 1^st period of Persian in Egypt also referred to as the 27^th Dynasty ended in 402 BC after Egypt re-earned its independence under the rule of several native dynasties. The Persians were able to restore their rule in 343 BC until they handed Egypt to Alexander the Great in a peaceful manner.

The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)

            Alexander the Great conquered Egypt from the Persians in 332 BC without a fight and was viewed by the Egyptians as a liberator. His successors in established the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom founded on an Egyptian model with its capital city in Alexandria. Alexandria went on to become a powerful and prestigious city that became a hub of culture as well as learning and was a symbol of Hellenistic rule. The Ptolemies were able to grow the economy through success in commerce. It is noteworthy that Hellenistic culture was not hostile to the existing Egyptian culture because the Ptolemies continued to support Egyptian traditions as a way of gaining support from the population. For instance, they adopted the image of pharaohs, supported native cults and constructed new temples in Egyptian style. In addition, they merged some Egyptian and Greek gods and culture. In spite of all these efforts, the Ptolemies faced challenges as a result of rebellions from the natives, family rivalries and powerful mobs in Alexandria. The fact that the Romans depended heavily on Egypt for grain imports meant that Rome had great interest in the country;s affairs. The country was eventually conquered by the Romans after a period of successive conflicts and revolts.

The Roman Period (30 BC to AD 641)

            In 30 BC, Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire as one of its provinces after the defeat of the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony in the Battle of Actium by Octavian. Egypt was very important to the Roman Empire  because it was its breadbasket that supplied grain as well as other products such such as glass, papyrus and flax among other finished goods. The Romans had to depend on their army to suppress rebellions, collect taxes and prevent bandit attacks which were a serious threat to the movement of goods. During this period, Alexandria became a very important trade hub and a key center of commerce.

The Romans had were more hostile to Egyptian culture than the Greeks but they allowed some cultural practices such as the worship of traditional gods and mummification to continue. The mummification art prospered and some of the Roman rulers were depicted as pharaohs. The Romans preferred direct rule. This meant that indigenous Egyptians were banned from assuming positions in local administrations. By the mid 1^st century, Christianity had reached Egypt. It was initially viewed as another cult which could be tolerated. However, it was an evangelical religion that sought to gain followers from pagan Greco-Roman and Egyptian cults meaning that it threatened the existing traditional religions.  As such, Christian converts were persecuted leading to the purges of Diocletian than beganin 303. Nonetheless, Christianity was victorious and by 391, Theodosius who was a Christian emperor introduced laws which closed temples and banned pagan rites. Sometimes, the temples were converted to churches meaning that the native religion was declining at a fast rate.

When the Roman Empire was divided in the 4^th century, Egypt became part of the Eastern Empire which had Constantinople as its capital. During the final years of the Roman Empire, Egypt and parts of Libya were ruled by the Sasanian Empire that llasted from 619 to 629. It was then captured by the Sasanian rebel Shahrbaraz who entered an alliance with Heraclius who was the Byzantine emperor. Eventually, Egypt was conquered by the Muslim Rashidun army in 639-641. This is considered to be the end of the period referred to as ‘Ancient Egypt.’

The Middle Ages (7^th Century to 1517)

            Egypt was conquered by the Arab Muslim Empire in 642 after the Byzantine empire was defeated. The conquest of Egypt proved to be a very difficult blow for the Byzantine Empire which had become dependent on Egypt fro many important products such as manufactured as well as agricultural goods. The Arabs introduced Sunni Islam into the country. During this period, the Egyptians began to blend Islam with their Christian traditions and some native practices/ideas creating some Sufi orders which have survived all the way to the modern period.

Initially, the Arabs made Fustat the capital of Egypt but it was burnt during the crusades. In 986, they built Cairo and made it the capital city. It also became the 2^nd richest and largest city in the caliphate after Baghdad.  During the Abbasid period, the taxation was very high leading to a Copt revolt in the 4^th year of Abbasid rule. At the start of the nineth century, Egypt was once again ruled by a governor under the authority of Abdallah ibn Tahrir who lived in Baghdad. Another revolt broke out in 828 as well as 831 when the Copts formed an alliance with native Muslims to fight the government. The Abbasids eventually lost power in Baghdad leading to a period of military rule under a succession of various generals who were allied to Abbasid. The Tulunid dynasty (868-905) as well as the Ikshidid dynasty (935-969) became famous for their ability to defy the Abbasid Caliph.

 Muslim rulers continued to rule Egypt for the next 6 centuries with the capital remainin in Cairo. Eventually, Egypt was taken over by the Ottoman Turks who made it a part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. The Ottomans made the Egyptian society extremely militarized, damaging its economic institutions as well as its civil society. This meant that the country increasing became vulnerable to foreign invasions.