The History of British and Republican Egypt (1882 to 2024)

The history of the British era in Egypt began in 1882 when the British forces occupied the country after the Anglo-Egyptian War and officially ended in 1956 after the withdrawal of British forces under the the 1954 Anglo-Egyptian agreement. Historians refer to the first period of British rule (1882-1914) as the ‘veiled protectorate.’ This was a period when the Khedivate of Egypt remained a part of the Ottoman Empire as one of its provinces. As such,m, the British had no formal or legal role but had made the country a de facto protectorate. As such, during this period, Egypt was not considered to be a part of the British Empire. In 1914, the country officially became a British protectorate after the Ottoman Empire joined the first World War fighting alongside the Central Powers. At the time, the ruler of the the country Hussein Kamel was overthrown and replaced by Hussein Kamel who went on to declare that the country was liberated from the Ottoman Empire and that he would serve as the Sultan of Egypt.

On February 28 1922, the British authorities unilaterally declared that Egypt had become an independent country meaning that the formal protectorate only lasted for 8 years. This led Sultan Fuad I to declare himself to be the Egyptian King. However, the British troops continued to occupy the country in line with some clauses contained in the declaration of independence. The occupation was formalized in 1936 under the Anglo-Egyptian treaty which allowed the stationing of troops in the country to defend the Suez Canal which was a key link to India. In addition, the training of the Egyptian army continued to be done by the British. During the Second World War, Egypt came under attack from Italian Libya because of the presence of British forces there even though Egypt maintained a policy of neutrality in the war. After the end of the war, the country sought to modify the treaty but it was abolished in its entirity in 1951 under the anti-British regime. In 1952, a revolution overthrew King Farouk and in 1953, the monarchy formally replaced by the Egyptian republic under the rule of Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Nasser. In June 1956, the British reached an agreement to withdraw troops from the country. In the same year, the Britain, France and Israel fought Egypt for control over the Suez Canal but were forced to withdraw their forces because of the lack of international support marking the final end of the presence of British forces in the country

The Veiled Protectorate (1882-1913)

In the 19^th century, the rulers of Egypt borrowed heavily and spent the money on developing the infrastructure in the country and luxury. At the time, the economy was mainly based on the production of military dual-used goods. As such, the economic production in the country was insufficient to repay the loans leading the country to a path of implosion and even potential dissolution. As a result, the French and the British took control of the state treasury and canceled the loan in exchange for the control over the Suez Canal. They also reoriented the economy towards growth and economic production. However, the European control of the country was fiercely opposed by Islamic and Arab nationalists leading to increased tension with the natives. The most potent opposition was from the Egyptian army which felt threatened by the the fact that they were losing control over the economy under the new policy of economic reorientation. In 1881, the Urabi military revolt forced the Khedive Tewfiq to fire his Prime Minister. It also forced the European forces to retreat to defensible areas and to Alexandria where there were European settlers.

In 1882, warships were sent to Alexandria by the British and the French to protect the Khedive during a difficult and tumultuous period. This led the nationalists in the country to spread fear and rumour that the country would be invaded to create a revolutionary atmosphere. As such, Tewfiq was forced to flee to Alexandria to protect his life as the army started to take control of the country under Ahmed Urabi. In June, the nationalists who were opposed European domination had taken control of the country and began to nationalize the economy. In addition, the Europeans in Alexandria were subjected to violence forcing the British navy to bombard the city. In the same year, a combination Anglo-French-Indian forces were able to defeat the army at Tel El Kebir and put Tewfiq back in power.

The Denshawai incident in 1906 made some of the people to start questioning the British rule of the country. The German Empire took advantage of this feeling to support revolutionary forces that were against the British. As such, the British were forced to find ways to infiltrate these movements and to try to nurture pro-British forces so as to maintain control over the country. After World War I had ended, they tried to legitimize friendly forces through membership in the League of Nations as well as the Versailles treaty.

Formal Occupation

In 1914, the British declared war on the Ottoman Empire leading to the separation of Egypt from the empire and the declaration that the country had become a protectorate of the British empire. They also overthrew the Khedive and appointed his close relative as the Sultan of Egypt. In 1919,  mass demonstrations that became an uprising/revolution were organized by nationalist forces in the country. The movement included female nationalists who joined their male counterparts to resist the British. As a result, Britain was forced to suppress the riots leading to over 800 deaths.

In December 1921, martial law was imposed by the British regime leading to demonstrations and violence. On February 28 1922, in recognition of the growing nationalism, the United Kingdom issued a unilatreal declaration of Egyptian independence leading to the end of the protectorate and Sarwat Pasha rose to the position of the prime minister. However, the British continued to be dominant in the country and maintained their control of the Suez Canal zone. The British army also maintained its presence in the cities and towns mainly to protect the foreigners.

After the death of King Fuad I, Farouk rose to the throne aged 16 and signed the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty that required the British to withdraw all its armed forces from the country except the Suez Canal. The move was a way to avoid an Italian invasion similar to the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. Nonetheless, the British maintained strong influence over the monarchy and used the country as a base of operations during the Second World War. In 1947, the forces were withdrawn to the Suez Canal forces but this did not lead to the decline of anti-colonial and nationalist feelings. In 1948, the country participated in the Arab-Israeli forces and were defeated making the monarchy more unpopular. As a result, King Farouk was overthrown by the 1952 revolution which placed the country in the hands of Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Nasser. In 1953, the socialist Republic of Egypt was established after the dissolution of the monarchy. In 1956, the British withdrew their troops but tried to regain control over the Suez Canal when they fought Egypt alongside France and Israel but were forced to retreat under international pressure, most notably from the United States. The war marked termination of the presence of British forces in Egypt.

The Republic of Egypt

After the Free Officers Movement had successfully led the 1952 revolution, the military took control of the country and banned all political parties. The Republic of Egypt was declared on 18^th June 1953 and General Muhammad Naguib became the country’s first president. However, he was forced to resign and placed under house arrest by Gamal Nasser who was the real leader of the 1952 movement. The presidency remained vacant until Nasser was elected in 1956. After his election, he nationalized the Suez Canal after the British had withdrawn their forces. His hostility towards Israel and his policies of economic nationalism led to a war between Egypt and Israel supported by France and Britain which ended after pressure from the United states as well as the USSR.

Egypt and Syria agreed to form the United Arab Republic in 1958. However, the union ended swiftly in 1961 after the secession of Syria. During its brief existence, the United Arab Republic formed a loose confederation with North Yemen referred to as the United Arab States. This lead the Egyptian army to become a party in the North Yemen Civil War. In 1967, Egypt fough Israel during the six day war that led to its defeat and the occupation of the Sinai by Israel. During the war, the government enacted the Emergency Law that allowed censorship and the suspension of constitutional rights. The law remained in effect until 2012. In 1970, President Nasser died and was replaced by Anwar Sadat.

Egypt Under Sadat

Sadat rose to power in 1970 and realigned the country from the USSR to the United States after the expulsion of Soviet advisors in 1972. In the same year, the country changed its name to the Arab Republic of Egypt. In 1973, Egypt and Syria launched the Yom Kippur War also known as the Fourth Arab-Israeli War to try and recapture the Sinai which had been occupied by Israel since 1967. The war ended in the victory of Israel which also captured the Golan Heights. Anwar Sadat launched economic reforms that reduced government regulations as well as import tariffs and allowed foreign investment through the Infitah programme. In 1977, the Egyptian Bread Riots began after Sadat abolished subsidies on foodstuff.  In the same year, Sadat visited Israel where he signed the Egypt-Israel peace treaty that required Israel to withdraw from the Sinai and normalized relations between the two countries with Egypt agreeing to recognize the existence of Israel as a sovereign state.  The move was so controversial that it led to the expulsion of Egypt from the Arab League even though it was supported by a majority of Egyptians. It also led to the assassination of Sadat by an Islamist in 1981.

Egypt Under Mubarak

After the death of Sadat, Hosni Mubarak rose to power after holding a referendum in which he was the sole candidate and went on to become a dominant figure in Egyptian history. He maintained relations with Israel and improved the country’s ties to other Arab countries. His administration faced numerous challenges including mass poverty as well as unemployment that led to high levels of rural-urban migration to cities such as Cairo leading to the creation of crowded slums. On 25^th February 1986, his government faced a crisis when the Security Police began rioting in protest of having their term of duty extended from three to four years. Businesses in Cairo were attacked and riots were launched in other cities. Eventually, his regime managed to crush the riots leading to the death of 107 people.

From 1980s to the 2000s, the country suffered terrorist attacks targeting government official, foreign tourists and Christian Corps. In addition, an Islamist organization known as Al-Gamaa al-Islamiyya started to attack intellectuals and prominent writers. As a result, the tourism sector was seriously damaged leading to the loss of livelihood for a lot of people. During his rule, the Sadat-launched National Democratic Party dominated the politics in the country. The party passed laws that severely limited the freedom of association and made parliamentary politics irrelevant.

In February 2005, the Mubarak administration announced that reforms that allowed multiple candidates to vie for the election would be passed. However, the new law allowed the government to ban candidates allowing Mubarak to win the elections easily. After the election, he imprisoned his competitor Ayman Nour who emerged as the runner-up. Mubarak’s rule was characterized by his dictatorial policies including the arbitrary detentions and military trials. Moreover, his government practised torture and was very corrupt. On 19^th March 2007, the country passed laws that made it illegal for political parties to use religion as the foundation of their political activities and gave the police broad powers to do surveillance and make arrests. Nonetheless, he had excellent relations with the United States which supplied his government with weapons and other military equipment mainly because he was friendly to Israel. During his rule, the relations with Israel continued in all spheres including security cooperation and the economy.

The Egyptian Revolution

On 25^th January 2011, protests against the Mubarak government began as part of the Arab Spring. On 11^th February 2011, he was forced to resign and flee Cairo. As a result, many Egyptians jubilantly celebrate in the Tahrir Square, Cairo. The resulting vacuum allowed the Egyptian military to take power under the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces led by Mohammed Hussein Tantawi who became the de facto ruler of the country. On 13^th February 2011, the constitution was suspended and the parliament dissolved. In March the same year, a constitutional referendum was held that allowed the first parliamentary election since the fall of Mubarak to be held on 28^th November 2011. On 24^th June 2012, Mohammed Morsi who was linked to the Muslim Brotherhood was elected as president. The new government led by Prime Minister Hisham Qandil appointed 35 members of the cabinet including four who were a part of the Muslim Brotherhood. As a result, secular and liberals staged a walk out from the constituent assembly out of fear that the new government would impose strict Islamic laws. On the other hand, the Muslim Brotherhood continued to support Morsi.

On 22^nd November the same year, Morsi issued a temporary declaration that allowed his decrees to be immune from challenge and protected the constituent assembly’s work. This move led to widespread discontent and mass protests throughout the country. In December, violent clashed between Morsi’s opponents and his supporters took place marking the largest battle between the liberals and Islamists since the revolution. Consequently, Morsi offered to initiate a national dialogue with the opposition but declined to cancel the constitutional referendum held in December 2012. On 3^rd July 2013,the military overthrew Morsi, abolished the Shura Council  and installed an interim government.

As a result of the military takeover, the Chief Justice Aldy Mansour became the interim president on 4^th July 2013. The new government initiated a heavy crackdown of the Muslim Brotherhood and its followers. It jailed and forcefully dispersed pro-Brotherhood protests. Some of the leaders of the movement were also sentenced  to life in prison or death in mass trials. In addition, the new government held a constitutional referendum that was approved by 98.1% of the voters.

In the June 2014 elections, El-Sisi was elected as president by 96.1% of the voters and was became president on 8^th June 2014 after his inauguration. Under his government, Egypt faced numerous crisis including an ISIS insurgency in the Sinai. He also instituted a harsh policy of controlling Gaza’s borders as well as the destruction of underground tunnels that facilitated smuggling between Egypt and the Gaza Strip. Moreover, he continued the crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood and his political opponents. His also government pursued a policy of improving relations between Arab countries, Europe, Israel and the United States.

In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected in an election that had no opposition. This enabled him to get his parliament to increase the presidential term limits from 4 to 6 years and allowed him to be a candidate in the subsequent 2024 elections. Under his government, Egypt returned to a Mubarak style authoritarianism where the president has absolute powers and no real opposition. He also strengthened the military’s role allowing it to become a dominant force in the economy.

Moreover, he initiated plans to build a new capital city referred to as the ‘New Administrative Capital.’ Critics argue that the capital city project is too expensive and is only meant to protect the government from protests in the current heavily populated Capital, Cairo, which might threaten its fall. They also argue that the project is too expensive for a country that is going through enormous economic difficulties and has a large population of poor people who struggle to afford daily necessities in life.

On 7^th October 2023, Hamas which is the ruling authority in Gaza strip carried out the Al Aqsa Flood Operation by going in to the villages in Southern Israel where it overran military bases and killed soldiers. As a result Israel invaded  Gaza forcing Egypt to become the main transit hub for humanitarian aid meant to sustain the residents of the Gaza Strip. Egypt’s role in Gaza is particularly important because it has the only external border to the strip which has been under a blockade by Israel since 2006.