Labour Migration to the Gulf State/Middle East

The phenomenon of migration to the Gulf states and the Middle East, particularly from South Asia and Africa, has been significant since the mid-20th century. Employment agencies have played a critical role in facilitating this migration, establishing a network that has allowed millions of workers to secure employment abroad, particularly in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. This paper explores the origins of this trend, the types of jobs associated with it, and a comparison of opportunities in these countries.

 Origins of Gulf State Migration

 The influx of migrant workers to the Gulf states can be traced back to the oil boom of the 1970s. When vast oil reserves were discovered in countries like Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Kuwait, rapid economic growth created an urgent demand for labour that the small populations of these nations could not fulfil. This demand triggered a large-scale recruitment of foreign workers, primarily from countries in South Asia (such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka) and later from Africa (notably Kenya and Egypt).

 Employment agencies emerged as critical players in this migration, serving as intermediaries between Gulf employers and prospective workers. Initially, these agencies focused on recruiting labour for large-scale construction and infrastructure projects, but over the decades, they diversified to meet the demands of various industries, including hospitality, domestic work, and healthcare. By the 1980s, a complex web of recruitment agencies had emerged, both in sending countries and in the Gulf itself, to streamline the migration process.

 Types of Jobs Associated with Gulf Migration

 The types of jobs available to migrant workers in the Gulf states are diverse, though most fall into a few broad categories. The roles vary significantly in terms of skill level, salary, and working conditions, reflecting the wide range of sectors that rely on foreign labour:

 1. Construction and Infrastructure: The largest segment of migrant labour in the Gulf is in construction. Workers from South Asia and Africa are often employed as laborers, carpenters, electricians, and other tradespeople, contributing to the region's rapid urban development. Mega projects like the Burj Khalifa in Dubai and the infrastructure for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar required thousands of migrant workers.

 2. Domestic Work: Many migrant workers, particularly women from Southeast Asia and Africa, are employed as domestic helpers in the Gulf. This includes roles like nannies, housekeepers, and cooks. However, domestic workers are often the most vulnerable group due to lack of labour protections and issues related to the "kafala" (sponsorship) system.

 3. Hospitality and Retail: As tourism has grown in Gulf states, particularly in Dubai and Doha, hospitality has become a major industry for migrant workers. Hotels, restaurants, and retail stores employ thousands of foreign workers as waiters, cleaners, salespeople, and customer service agents.

 4. Healthcare: Healthcare is another growing sector, particularly in the UAE and Saudi Arabia, which increasingly rely on migrant doctors, nurses, and technicians from countries like India and the Philippines to meet healthcare needs.

 5. Transportation and Security: Migrants are often hired as taxi drivers, security guards, and airport staff. The presence of Kenyan workers at the Hamad International Airport in Qatar, as observed, is a testament to the country’s preference for foreign workers in operational roles within the transportation sector.

 Why Gulf Countries Rely on Migrant Labour

 1. Demographic and Population Limitations: Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have relatively small native populations, which creates a mismatch between labour supply and demand, especially in labour-intensive sectors. For example, the UAE’s population includes roughly 10 million people, but Emirati nationals comprise less than 15% of that figure. Saudi Arabia, though the most populous GCC nation, also faces a limited pool of citizens willing to work in low-wage or labour-intensive jobs. Migrant workers fill these roles, helping to meet the large demand for labour required to sustain the region’s construction, hospitality, and service sectors.

 2. Economic Vision and Prioritization of Skilled Workforce: Gulf nations, especially the UAE and Saudi Arabia, are keen to diversify their economies beyond oil. While projects like Vision 2030 in Saudi Arabia emphasize education and vocational training for nationals, the development of skilled local workforces takes time. Migrant labour, meanwhile, supports the region’s ambitious economic visions by providing an immediate workforce to fuel mega-projects, infrastructure, and service industries. Moreover, Gulf countries prioritize high-skilled roles for nationals to improve living standards and provide fulfilling employment, leaving low-skilled and semi-skilled roles for foreign workers.

 3. Preference for High-Wage, High-Status Employment Among Nationals: The Gulf’s oil wealth has historically fostered high expectations among citizens regarding employment status, wages, and benefits. Many local citizens prefer roles in government or high-paying private sector jobs that align with their lifestyle expectations. Positions in construction, domestic work, and low-wage service roles are often considered less desirable by nationals, who see these jobs as incompatible with their social standing and expectations. Migrant workers, on the other hand, are typically willing to accept these roles for comparatively lower wages, motivated by the opportunity to earn significantly more than they could in their home countries.

 4. Temporary Workforce Solution: Migrant labour is often employed on short-term contracts, making it a flexible solution for the Gulf states’ dynamic, project-driven economies. Countries like the UAE and Qatar have experienced cycles of rapid growth driven by construction booms, international events, and tourism. These demand spikes require a large workforce for specific time frames. Foreign workers, recruited for specific projects and under defined contracts, can be easily scaled up or down as needed. This temporary approach reduces long-term obligations to employees and allows governments to manage labour supply without the political and social implications of large-scale national unemployment.

 5. Dependence on Specific Skilled and Unskilled Labour: In some sectors, Gulf countries rely on skilled migrant labour, especially for roles that require technical or specialized skills not widely available among locals. For example, engineering, IT, healthcare, and teaching positions are filled by skilled professionals from countries like India, the Philippines, and the Western world. Meanwhile, low-skilled labour for construction and domestic work remains filled by migrant workers willing to work in physically demanding or low-wage jobs that may lack job security and stability. This labour segmentation allows Gulf states to maintain economic growth without restructuring their domestic labour markets entirely.

 United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Saudi Arabia: Contrasting Labour Markets

 The labour markets in UAE and Saudi Arabia present distinct opportunities and challenges for migrant workers, influenced by economic policies, lifestyle, and regulatory differences.

 1. UAE (Dubai, Abu Dhabi etc.):

   - Economic Opportunities: Dubai's economy is highly diversified, with thriving tourism, real estate, finance, and retail sectors that attract a wide range of migrant workers. High-skilled professionals are drawn to roles in finance, IT, and engineering, while low-skilled workers are often employed in hospitality, construction, and service sectors.

   - Living Standards and Social Freedom: Dubai offers relatively high living standards with modern amenities, attracting skilled expatriates as well as low-wage workers who may face high costs but enjoy a lifestyle not always available in neighbouring countries. Although accommodations for low-wage workers can be challenging, Dubai’s more open attitude toward social freedoms, like dress codes and recreational activities, make it an attractive destination.

   - Worker Protections and Labour Reforms: In recent years, the UAE has implemented labour reforms aimed at improving conditions for migrant workers, including wage protections, health insurance, and enhanced legal protections for domestic workers. Dubai’s cosmopolitan environment and liberalized labour market policies provide migrants with greater job flexibility, especially in comparison to more conservative Gulf countries.

 2. Saudi Arabia:

   - Economic Opportunities and Vision 2030: Saudi Arabia’s economy remains rooted in oil, but Vision 2030 has introduced initiatives to diversify the economy, fostering growth in sectors like renewable energy, entertainment, and healthcare. While Saudi Arabia is creating more opportunities for high-skilled expatriates, its low-skilled job market has shrunk for migrant workers due to Saudization policies that prioritize employment for citizens. Nonetheless, skilled expatriates remain in demand in areas like healthcare and engineering.

   - Cultural and Legal Constraints: Saudi Arabia has a more conservative social environment and strict regulations, which can impact the experience of migrant workers, especially those from non-Muslim countries. Restrictions on freedom of movement, dress codes, and social behaviour affect many aspects of daily life. Additionally, the recent labour reforms are gradually improving migrant worker rights, allowing for more mobility within the job market, but significant differences remain compared to Dubai.

   - Saudization Policies and Job Market Restrictions: In an effort to reduce reliance on foreign labour, Saudi Arabia has implemented Saudization policies to reserve a portion of jobs for Saudi citizens. This national employment initiative is particularly focused on retail and administrative roles but also impacts some lower-wage positions, leading to a reduction in demand for unskilled foreign workers in these fields. High-skilled roles, however, continue to be available to expatriates, reflecting the demand for international expertise to fulfil Saudi Arabia’s modernization goals.

 The migration of workers to Gulf states is not without severe challenges, and the experiences of many, especially domestic workers, are marked by hardship, abuse, and at times, fatal outcomes. While economic opportunity drives individuals from Kenya, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and other developing countries to work in places like Saudi Arabia and the UAE, the lack of labour protections, combined with restrictive visa policies, often leads to exploitation, physical and psychological abuse, and human trafficking. These are some of the troubling realities of labour migration to the Gulf, with a focus on issues faced by domestic workers, particularly from Kenya, and the underlying structural and legal factors that enable these abuses.

 1. The "Kafala" System and Power Imbalances

 One of the primary factors contributing to the abuse of migrant workers in the Gulf is the "kafala" system, a sponsorship-based employment arrangement that ties a worker's visa status directly to their employer. Under this system, employers, or "sponsors," have near-total control over their employees, who are prohibited from changing jobs or leaving the country without their employer's permission. This dependency creates a massive power imbalance, often trapping workers in exploitative or abusive conditions.

 In the case of domestic workers, the isolation of working in private homes exacerbates these risks. Unlike other sectors, domestic work often lacks oversight, leaving employees vulnerable to mistreatment. Domestic workers under the kafala system frequently report being denied wages, having their passports confiscated, and facing restricted movement, all of which reinforce a climate of control and, at times, outright abuse.

 2. Abuse and Violence Against Domestic Workers

 For domestic workers in Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and other Gulf states, experiences of physical, verbal, and sexual abuse are tragically common. The isolation within private households, coupled with the near-complete control employers wield over their staff, can lead to unchecked abuses that range from overwork and confinement to violence. Kenyan women working in Saudi Arabia have reported instances of physical abuse, sexual assault, and, in extreme cases, torture and death.

 Many migrant workers report being forced to work extremely long hours with little or no time off. A common complaint among domestic workers is sleep deprivation, as they are often required to be on-call 24/7. Some employers withhold food or restrict access to basic necessities as a means of punishment or control. Kenyan and Filipino women, in particular, have shared harrowing accounts of being denied access to medical treatment, prevented from leaving the employer’s premises, and subjected to degrading treatment and racial discrimination.

 While some Gulf countries have begun implementing reforms to address these issues, enforcement remains inconsistent. Cases of abuse often go unreported because workers fear retaliation, deportation, or further violence. Additionally, justice systems in Gulf countries may be biased against migrants, who often lack the legal representation, financial resources, or support networks needed to pursue their cases.

 3. Sexual Exploitation and Trafficking

 Sex trafficking and exploitation are another dark reality for some migrant workers in the Gulf. Though not as openly discussed, the problem is significant and often involves deception in recruitment. Women from Kenya, Uganda, and other African countries are sometimes recruited under the pretence of legitimate domestic or hospitality jobs, only to find themselves coerced into sex work upon arrival. Recruitment agencies and middlemen are frequently complicit in these practices, as they benefit financially from transporting vulnerable workers to the Gulf under misleading or outright false promises.

 In some cases, young women are forced to work in situations where they face constant sexual harassment and assault, with little recourse or protection. Exploitation in this form often occurs in the context of organized human trafficking networks that operate under the radar of Gulf authorities, who tend to focus on issues like visa violations rather than trafficking. Without a robust legal framework and international cooperation, combatting trafficking and holding perpetrators accountable remains a significant challenge.

 4. Fatal Consequences: Deaths of Domestic Workers

 Tragically, cases of death among domestic workers in the Gulf are reported with disturbing regularity. Kenyan women have died in Saudi Arabia under mysterious or suspicious circumstances, with their families often learning of the deaths long after the fact and receiving minimal information. In many instances, employers or agencies attribute these deaths to suicide, though family members contest these claims and suspect foul play or neglect. Cases of unexplained deaths highlight the extreme vulnerability of domestic workers and the lack of accountability mechanisms in place to protect them.

Kenyan government records indicate that 283 Kenyan workers in the Gulf region have died since 2020, with Saudi Arabia accounting for 175 of these cases. The majority of these deaths are associated with domestic workers, who face difficult working conditions, long hours, and, in many instances, physical and emotional abuse. While official reports often list "natural causes" like heart attacks, investigations into specific cases have revealed instances of physical harm, including torture and blunt-force injuries, raising concerns about the transparency of these death classifications and the conditions these workers face​.

The Kenyan government has issued warnings to citizens considering work in Saudi Arabia, urging caution due to the risks associated with domestic labour. In response to public outcry, Kenya has occasionally halted recruitment for Saudi-bound domestic work. However, without more comprehensive bilateral agreements and enforceable protections, these measures only serve as temporary deterrents rather than long-term solutions.

 5. Government and NGO Efforts to Address Abuse

 In recent years, both Gulf states and labour-sending countries have come under pressure to improve protections for migrant workers. Some governments, such as those of the UAE and Qatar, have implemented labour reforms aimed at enhancing the rights of foreign workers, such as minimum wage laws, more flexible mobility within the job market, and limitations on working hours. However, enforcement of these reforms remains inconsistent, especially for domestic workers, who often remain excluded from standard labour protections.

 The Kenyan government has tried to intervene on behalf of its citizens, including opening dialogue with Saudi authorities to advocate for better working conditions. However, without legally binding agreements and effective monitoring mechanisms, the abuses continue largely unchecked. Some countries, like the Philippines, have negotiated bilateral labour agreements that provide enhanced protections for their citizens, including a minimum wage, designated working hours, and improved legal recourse. However, the effectiveness of these agreements depends heavily on enforcement and monitoring, which remain limited.

 NGOs and international human rights organizations play a vital role in advocating for improved migrant worker rights. Groups like Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and Migrant-Rights.org document cases of abuse and push for accountability, and they often serve as a voice for those who cannot speak out. Yet, despite their advocacy, substantial changes to the system have been slow, and many workers continue to suffer under exploitative conditions.

 6. The Need for Structural Change and Policy Reform

 Addressing the pervasive abuse and exploitation faced by migrant workers in the Gulf requires systemic change. Governments in both labour-sending and receiving countries must adopt a more robust regulatory framework that protects migrant workers’ rights and includes enforceable penalties for abuses. Key areas that need reform include:

 The history of migration to Gulf states highlights the complex interplay of labour demands, economic ambitions, and evolving employment policies. Migrant workers have been instrumental to the rapid development of these nations, providing essential labour in sectors ranging from construction to domestic service and hospitality. Employment agencies play a key role in recruiting and placing these workers, but they also bear responsibility for ensuring that recruitment practices are ethical and transparent. The UAE, with its relatively liberalized employment policies, offers a broader range of job opportunities compared to countries like Saudi Arabia, where Saudization policies favour national hires, narrowing job prospects for migrants. Similarly, Qatar’s use of Kenyan and other foreign labour for key roles, such as airport staff, underscores the critical dependence on migrant workers for essential services.

 Looking forward, Gulf countries are likely to maintain their reliance on migrant labour. However, this dependency must be balanced by substantial reforms to improve labour protections and address human rights concerns. Key areas for continued improvement include:

1. Further Reform or Abolition of the Kafala System: In March 2021, the government of Saudi Arabia launched the Labour Reform Initiative (LRI) as part of its Vision 2030 agenda, which seeks to modernize the economy and improve labour conditions. Key reforms under the LRI include allowing migrant workers greater freedom to change employers, leave the country without their employer's permission, and renew their residency status independently of their employers. These changes marked a shift from the previous requirements under the kafala system, where workers were largely dependent on their sponsors (kafeel) for these actions.

Despite recent adjustments, the kafala sponsorship system still grants employers significant control over workers, perpetuating power imbalances and leading to abuses, especially for low-wage and domestic workers. Gulf countries need to either fully abolish or reform this system, moving toward employment policies that offer workers autonomy over their movements and employment choices. Reforms in Qatar and the UAE have shown that positive change is possible, but consistent enforcement and expansion of these rights to all workers are critical.

 2. Strengthening Legal Protections for Domestic Workers: Domestic workers, particularly in private households, remain vulnerable due to their exclusion from standard labour protections. Gulf nations should integrate domestic work into their labour laws, guaranteeing minimum wages, reasonable working hours, rest days, and access to dispute resolution mechanisms. Additionally, routine inspections and support hotlines could provide greater accountability and safety for these workers.

 3. Enhanced Oversight of Recruitment Agencies: Employment agencies play an essential role in the labour migration process, but unethical practices, such as deception in job promises and excessive fees, remain problematic. Sending and receiving countries should collaborate to enforce ethical recruitment standards, with stronger penalties for agencies that engage in exploitation or trafficking. Workers should also receive transparent information about their rights and job terms before departure.

 4. Bilateral Labour Agreements for Better Worker Protections: Bilateral labour agreements between Gulf countries and labour-sending nations like Kenya, the Philippines, and Nepal can set minimum standards for working conditions, wages, and rights protections. These agreements should also outline clear procedures for dispute resolution and emergency repatriation. Monitoring and enforcement of these agreements are essential to ensuring that they genuinely benefit migrant workers.

 5. Improved Access to Justice and Support Networks: Many migrant workers lack the means to seek justice in cases of abuse or exploitation. Gulf states could establish specialized support centres where workers can report grievances and receive legal and social support. Collaboration with NGOs and the provision of multilingual services could empower workers to stand up against mistreatment. Embassies and consulates also play a crucial role in supporting workers and should be adequately equipped to intervene in emergencies.

 6. Public Awareness and Cultural Sensitization Campaigns: Long-term change will also depend on cultural shifts within Gulf societies. Awareness campaigns on the rights and contributions of migrant workers could reduce discrimination and build public support for better treatment of foreign labour. Emphasizing the dignity and value of all work can foster a more inclusive atmosphere that respects the contributions of migrant workers.

 Conclusion

The migration of workers to the Gulf states has been a dynamic process shaped by shifting labour demands, changing employment policies, and the crucial role of employment agencies in facilitating workforce movement. Migrant labour has been central to the economic growth of Gulf nations, supporting vital sectors like construction, hospitality, and domestic work. The UAE's relatively liberal employment policies offer a range of opportunities, while Saudi Arabia's Saudization efforts limit access for migrant workers in favour of local hires. In Qatar, the employment of Kenyan and other foreign workers in roles such as airport staff highlights a reliance on migrant labour for essential services.

 While Gulf countries have made initial strides in reforming labour practices, the path toward a sustainable and ethical labour system requires further and more comprehensive change. Effective reform will mean fostering transparent labour systems that place worker dignity, safety, and human rights at the forefront. Key steps include continued relaxation of restrictive sponsorship systems, stronger legal protections for domestic and low-wage workers, and tighter regulation of recruitment practices to prevent abuse and exploitation.

 Looking ahead, the Gulf states’ economic expansion and diversification will likely sustain their demand for migrant workers. However, this reliance must be paired with meaningful protections, ensuring that as migrant workers continue to contribute to the region's growth, they are guaranteed fair treatment, adequate working conditions, and legal recourse. Only through a balanced approach—valuing both economic needs and the rights of workers—can Gulf countries build labour systems that benefit both host nations and the migrant communities that drive their progress.